Optical modulator

ABSTRACT

The present disclosure is in the field of an electrophoretic device for switching between a transparent and non-transparent mode, comprising a fluid and particles, electrodes for moving said particles, and comprising various further elements, as well as uses thereof, in particular as a window blind.

RELATED APPLICATION

The present patent document is a continuation of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 17/087,063, which was filed on Nov. 2, 2020 and is continuationof U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/778,002, which was filed on Jan.31, 2020 and claims the benefit of foreign priority to NetherlandsPatent Application No. 2022504, which was filed on Feb. 4, 2019. All ofthe aforementioned patent applications are hereby incorporated byreference in their entirety.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure is directed to an electrophoretic device forswitching between a transparent and non-transparent mode, comprising afluid and particles, electrodes for moving said particles, andcomprising various further elements, as well as uses thereof, inparticular as a window blind.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Electronic display devices and especially electrophoretic displaydevices are typically pixilated display devices in which charged pigmentparticles are moved vertically to generate a required pigmentation of apixel. In a first approach thereof black and white particles areencapsulated, defining a closed space wherein black particles moveupwards at the same time when white particles move downwards, or viceversa; so, either the white or the black particles are visible andhiding the other type at the same time; a transparent state is notpossible. Pigment particles cannot freely move, as they are enclosed inmicrocapsules. The pigment particles are relatively large, typicallylarger than 500 nm (0.5 μm), and on average 1 μm or larger. The twoelectrodes typically used are located above one and another. Switchingis achieved by an electric field, the particles typically being chargedor chargeable; this type of display device is often referred to asE-ink, such as described in US2002/167500 A1. The microcapsules,typically made of plastic, are relatively small (30 μm). By applying acolor filter a color may be provided. Colored particles are beingdeveloped and may be driven electrically accordingly. Switching isrelatively fast (within 300 mseconds), the stability is good (above 10seconds), and the contrast is good as well. Stacks of layers cantypically not be formed due to the inherent presence of microcapsulesbeing either in a white or black status, i.e. always providing a“color”.

In an alternative technique the colored particles can move more freelythroughout a pixel, largely independently of one and another. Thecolored particles move from one location, in the pixel, to anotherlocation, also typically due to an applied electrical field. A firstlocation is typically where particles accumulate, has a high density orconcentration, whereas a second location is where particles are spreadout, typically evenly, having a lower concentration or density, therebyproviding the impression of coloring. The area of the first location,often referred to as accumulation area, is relatively small. Switchingis achieved by moving particles from the accumulation electrode to thesecond, field, electrode. By agglomerating the particles towards theaccumulation area the transparency of the display is changed. In a topview the field area and accumulation area are located adjacent to oneand another, contrary to the E-ink approach.

For further details of present developments in this field as well as fordrawbacks of the present technology reference is made to recently filedNL2010936, which reference is incorporated herein by explicit reference.A main difference compared to other technologies is that the coloredparticles are always visible. Some details are provided below.

A benefit of the lateral switching of charged particles is that theelectrophoretic display device may comprise a fully transparent state.In principle a choice of reflector or possibly backlight is possible.

However, in an electrophoretic display it is relatively difficult tocontrol the electrical field and particle motion distribution accuratelyenough to provide a homogenous pixel absorbance in the “dark” state aswell as to fix the particles in the “light” state to an electrode.

Also switching from a first state to a second state in the above displaymay be relatively slow; typically too slow for many applications, evenwith recently improved devices. It is noted that typically prior artparticles move at a speed of less than about 0.1 mm per second, which isconsidered at least ten times too slow for certain applications.

For full color displays, which may comprise a stack of the above pixels,the situation is clearly even worse.

It is noted that various pixel layouts exist. An issue withelectrophoretic displays is lifetime, especially for the electrodes.Obtaining a stable configuration for e.g. a pixel has been founddifficult, especially in view of electrical fields being provided. Inaddition, it remains difficult to have good switching times andstability.

In general it is noted that the electrophoretic pixels are relativelydifficult in terms of modeling. Simple calculations, such as linkingfluid viscosity and applied field, do not apply well in practice. Suchis reflected by the fact that major companies have been trying todevelop electrophoretic pixels unsuccessfully over the years.

BRIEF SUMMARY

The present disclosure relates in a first aspect to an opticalmodulator, in a second aspect to a product comprising said opticalmodulator, and in a third aspect to a method of operating said opticalmodulator. The present disclosure provides a very different mode ofoperation, at different conditions, wherein a pulsed mode is used forapplying an electrical field and with a good conducting material aselectrode. The present optical modulator is for switching between atransparent state and an at least partly non-transparent state and viceversa, wherein in the non-transparent state typically >70% of the lightis blocked, such as >90%, from passing through the modulator, andwherein in a transparent state most of the light is let through. In thenon-transparent state one could still look through the optical modulatorand perceive images at another side thereof. The optical modulatorcomprises a first and a second substrate (11,12), wherein the substratesare optically transparent, typically >95% transparent at relevantwavelengths, such as >99% transparent. At least two electrodes 13,14 areprovided at an internal side of the substrates. These electrodes are fordriving particles. A fluid 15 is provided in between said substrates,the fluid comprising nanoparticles and/or microparticles, wherein theparticles are electrically charged, and can be driven by an electricalfield to move towards or away from electrodes, depending on a potentialapplied. The particles are adapted to absorb light and therewithpreventing certain wavelengths from passing through. Further aconnection for applying an electro-magnetic field to the electrodes isprovided, wherein in use the applied electro-magnetic field to theelectrodes provides movement of the nano- and microparticles from afirst electrode to a second electrode and vice versa. The presentoptical modulator is characterized in that the electrodes comprise anelectrical conducting material with a resistivity of less than 100 nΩm(@273K; for comparison typically used ITO has 10⁵ nΩm), which is similarto an electrical conductivity >1*10⁷ S/m@20° C.). As a furthercharacterization also resistivity per unit area (Ohms per square, Ω/□)may be used; then a value of less than 80Ω/□ (@273K) is good, preferablyless than 60Ω/□, more preferably less than 10Ω/□, such as less than2Ω/□. So good conducting materials are used in this respect; further inthat the at least two electrodes are adapted to provide a lateralelectrical force between said electrodes, that is particles move in amostly horizontal direction, parallel to the substrates. Further in apower provider in electrical connection with the at least twoelectrodes, wherein the power provider is adapted to provide a waveformpower, wherein at least one of amplitude, frequency, and phase isadaptable, and wherein the electrodes are in fluidic contact with thefluid, which contact may be directly (fluid in contact with theelectrode) or indirectly (fluid in contact via a second medium with theelectrode, such as through a porous layer), and wherein electrodes cover1-30% of the substrate surface. Surprisingly stable electrodes areobtained with this configuration, i.e. operation can be maintained overlong periods of time without any deterioration of the electrodesoccurring. Switching is acceptable for given applications and may beimproved. Stability of the two states (transparent and non-transparent)is fine. The present modulator comprises typically colored particles,being capable of moving from a first location (e.g. storage area) to asecond location. Thereto the particles are charged or chargeable. Alsothe particles may be relatively small, e.g. smaller than 900 nm,preferably smaller than 400 nm, and larger than 30 nm, preferably largerthan 40 nm, such as 60-200 nm. For improved movement and control smallerparticles are preferred. For imparting movement at least two electrodesare provided. In some embodiments, two electrodes may be foundsufficient for each substrate. The electrodes occupy an area at an innerside of the substrates, i.e. towards the fluid. One electrode may relateto an electrically neutral (or ground) electrode. For controllingmovement of colored particles and stability of a status (transparent orcolored) in a device a driver circuit for applying an electro-magneticfield to the modulator may be provided.

The present modulator is characterized in that the electrodes comprisean electrically conducting material with a resistivity of less than 100nΩm (at 273K), the at least two electrodes are adapted to provide anelectrical force between said electrodes parallel to the substrates whenswitching to a non-transparent state, and the at least two electrodesare adapted to provide an electrical force between said electrodes in anorientation with respect to the substrates when switching to atransparent state, which orientation is selected from parallel to thesubstrates, perpendicular to the substrates, diagonal with respect tothe substrates, and combinations thereof, a power provider in electricalconnection with the at least two electrodes, wherein the power provideris adapted to provide a waveform power, wherein at least one ofamplitude, frequency, and phase is adaptable, and wherein the electrodesare in fluidic contact with the fluid, and wherein electrodes cover1-70% of the substrate surface. This provides movement of the particles.Also the modulator can now be safely operated with or without electrocorrosion. The present modulator typically has a distance between thefirst and second substrate smaller than 30 μm, such as 15 μm. It maycomprise one or more pixels, typically a multitude of pixels, the pixelbeing a single optically switchable entity, which may vary in size. Thesubstrates enclose a volume, which may be a pixel, at least partly. Thedistance may be much smaller than typical prior art devices. The presentdesign, allowing lateral movement, as well as a relatively smalldistance provide a much better control of the movement of the particles,a good control of the electrical field being almost insensitive toimperfections of the materials used, such as perturbations, noproduction issues when outlining the substrates, and providing a goodstability of the two statuses. Further the design is much more robust,such as in that electrodes remain mostly intact over longer periods oftime. Also good optical properties are provided. Even further, thepresent design allows for stacking, contrary to prior art devices, suchas is further detailed below.

For moving the particles around an appropriate electrical field isapplied to the electrodes, e.g. attracting or repelling the chargedparticles. Such is done for each and every electrode where an effect isenvisaged; other parts may have no electrical field. In this way eachindividual part, typically a pixel, can be addressed independently andas a consequence each individual part can be in a transparent (onlyparticles visible on an electrode 16) or in a “colored” mode. Likewisean electrode can as a whole be at a zero (0) voltage, or at a positiveor negative voltage, thereby contributing to the electrical field. In asimilar fashion the electrical field can be refreshed now and then.

The term “optical” may relate to wavelengths visible to a human eye(about 380 nm-about 750 nm), where applicable, and may relate to abroader range of wavelengths, including infrared (about 750 nm-1 μm) andultraviolet (about 10 nm-380 nm), and sub-selections thereof, whereapplicable.

Important is that the present pixel and device are fully adaptable, e.g.to changing light conditions.

The present device may comprise pixels therein, which pixels can bechanged, i.e. within a few seconds.

In the present modulator typically one type of colored particles may bepresent, such as selected from red, green, and blue, or from magenta,cyan, and yellow, as well as combinations thereof. A modulator maychange from white (transparent) to one of the colors, and vice versa,upon change of an electric field. In addition black particles may bepresent, but not necessarily, which would complicate the designsomewhat. For black/transparent applications only black particles aretypically present.

For full color applications, a stack of two or three modulators couldprovide most or all colors, respectively. Such a stack is consideredimpossible with at least some other layouts, as in such a case eitherblack or white particles would always be visible; also there is nooption to provide further typically considered features as haze,contrast, warm/cold effect, complementary contrast, simultaneouscontrast, saturation, intensity, etc. For the present pixel all thesefeatures can be adapted and controlled very precisely.

The present modulator comprising only black particles is found to have ahigh black contrast.

The present device may comprise a driver circuit for changing appearanceof (individual) pixels by applying an electro-magnetic field. As suchalso appearance of the display device, or one or more parts thereof, maybe changed.

The present electronic device may comprise a unique code foridentification. As such every electronic device can be identifiedindividually.

The present device, including substrates, protective layer, etc. may berelatively thin and can therefore in principle be applied to e.g. astack of devices. The present display has a thickness less than 0.1 cm,preferably a thickness of 10 μm-500 μm, more preferably a thickness of15 μm-300 μm, even more preferably a thickness of 25 μm-200 μm, such as50 μm-100 μm. A thickness may vary, e.g. depending on a number ofdevices applied. As such the present display device (in a transparentmode) is not or hardly visible for a human eye.

Especially for smaller devices also a power supply may be provided,typically a battery.

For better understanding of the underlying technology, reference is madeto prior filed (Jun. 7, 2013) Dutch Patent application NL2010936. Theteachings and examples of the above document are hereby incorporated byreference.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A-1C show side views of the present optical modulator.

FIGS. 2A-2E show plan views of interdigitated electrodes from the topand bottom substrate.

FIGS. 3A-3C show opening and closing pulses.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS AND THE PRESENTLY PREFERREDEMBODIMENTS

The present disclosure relates in a first aspect to an opticalmodulator.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the waveform powercan be characterized by a frequency of 0.01-100 Hz, a variation inamplitude of 5-100% of a maximum amplitude, wherein the maximumamplitude is a maximum voltage operation, and in a variation in phase(phase shift) of 0-180°. Depending on ink characteristics, low frequencywaveforms (0.01-1 Hz) are found to increase the optical modulatortransparency. High frequency waveforms (70-100 Hz) are found to maintainor decrease the optical modulator transparency. Low waveform amplitudes(20-50%) are found to maintain a low transparency level. High waveformamplitudes (80-100%) are found to maintain a high transparency level.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator, the at least twoelectrodes form an interdigitated pattern, preferably on bothsubstrates. The fingers of the interdigitated pattern may furthercomprise at least one branch, typically at least one branch at eitherside thereof, such as branches with a spacing of 0.01-3 cm.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the interdigitatedpattern is a regular 2-dimensional pattern, wherein each fingercomprises at least one waveform, wherein the waveform has an amplitude Aand a width W, and wherein fingers are at a distance d from one andanother, i.e. wherein fingers are separated. It has been found thathigher order images are formed due to the presence of the electrodes onthe substrate. In order to minimize these secondary images the fingersof the interdigitated electrodes are preferably not straight (see alsoexample).

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the waveformsinusoidal shape symmetry is broken, such as wherein at a maximum of thewaveform shape a downward curved first protrusion is provided, andwherein at a minimum of the waveform shape a downward or upward curvedsecond protrusion is provided. By doing so the higher order images arereduced significantly. Compared to a straight pattern a brightness isdecreased from about 180 to 60 (on an 8-bit grey scale).

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the first protrusionhas a larger width than the second protrusion. It has been found thattherewith higher order images are even further reduced.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator a width W of thewaveform is 50-750 μm, such as 100-500 μm.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator an amplitude A ofthe waveform is 10-500 μm, such as 20-400 μm.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator a distance d betweenthe fingers is 10-500 μm, preferably 10-100 μm, such as 20-70 μm.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator a width of the firstprotrusion is 10-50 μm, such as 20-30 μm.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator a width of thesecond protrusion is 10-50 μm, such as 20-30 μm.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator a width of the firstprotrusion is 2-4 times the width of the second protrusion.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator a height h of thefirst protrusion is 5-20 μm, such as 10-15 μm.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator a height h of thesecond protrusion is 5-20 μm, such as 10-15 μm.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator a form of theprotrusion is part of a circle or oval.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator a transition fromwaveform to protrusion and vice versa is gradual.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the power provideris adapted to provide pulses and to refrain from providing pulses duringintervals therein between, such as pulses of 0.1-10 sec/min, andintervals of 0.1-1000 seconds, preferably of 5-600 seconds.

In an exemplary embodiment the optical modulator may comprise acontroller, wherein the controller is adapted to maintain an alternatingelectrical current with a size of the positive current being 0.9-1.1times a size of the negative current, preferably 0.95-1.05 times a sizethereof, more preferably 0.99-1.01 times a size thereof, such as0.995-1.005 times a size thereof, and adapted to vary an electricalpotential in accordance with the electrical current.

In an exemplary embodiment the optical modulator may comprise at leasttwo alignment markers on each substrate for aligning substrates,preferably such that electrodes of the first substrate are fully alignedwith electrodes of the second substrate, more preferably that electrodesof the first substrate project on the electrodes of the secondsubstrate.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator electrodes comprisecopper, silver, gold, aluminium, graphene, titanium, indium, andcombinations thereof, preferably copper.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the power provideris operated at an AC frequency for switching to a transparent state of10-100 Hz.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the power provideris operated at an AC frequency for switching to a non-transparent stateof less than 1 Hz, such as 30-500 mHz, typically in case of slow movingparticles.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator within one switchingcycle, the power provider is operated at an AC frequency for switchingto a transparent state of 10-100 Hz, in combination with the powerprovider at an initial stage of the cycle being operated at a positiveor negative voltage when switching to a transparent state and incombination with the power provider being at a final stage of the cycleoperated at a negative or positive voltage when switching to anon-transparent state. In between the initial and final stage the directpositive or negative voltages are absent. Therewith good control, goodstability, and low power consumption are achieved, amongst others.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the fluid comprisescounter ions for compensating a charge on the particles.

In an exemplary embodiment the optical modulator may comprise atemperature sensor and/or controller, wherein the temperature sensor isin contact with the controller, wherein the controller is in contactwith the power provider, and wherein the controller as adapted tocompensate output of the power provider in view of the temperaturemeasured by the temperature sensor.

In an exemplary embodiment the optical modulator may comprise a stack ofoptical modulators, wherein a number of optical modulators is from 2-10,preferably 3-5. Each modulator in the stack may comprise differentcolored particles, and (different) mixtures thereof. Therewith a fullcolor device may be provided. In an example thereof a first substrate ofa second modulator and a second substrate of a first modulator are thesame, i.e. are combined into one substrate. Such is a big advantage ofthe present device, therewith reducing the number of substrates in astack, improving contrast and transparency, and reducing complexity. Inan example the fluid is transparent. The above examples may be combinedin full or in part.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator optionally at leastone substrate 11,12 of a first optical modulator is the same as asubstrate 11,12 of at least one second optical modulator.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator electrodes eachindividually have a width of 1-30 μm, preferably 3-10 μm, such as 5-8μm.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator electrodes eachindividually have a thickness of 0.1-200 μm, preferably 1-25 μm, morepreferably 1.5-15 μm, such as 2-5 μm.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator electrodes comprisean electrical conducting material with a resistivity of less than 30 nΩm(@273K), preferably less than 20 nΩm.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator spacers are providedin between the first and second substrates, preferably 1-10000/mm², suchas 5-100/mm². In an example the first and second substrate are spacedapart by (glass) beads having a diameter of 2-30 μm, preferably 14-16μm, such as 15 μm. The randomly distributed beads, preferably glassbeads or polymer beads, define a distance between the substrates veryaccurately, provide strength and flexibility, and hardly disturbmovement of the colored particles. The beads can be produced such that avery homogenous distribution of sizes thereof is obtained, e.g. with anaccuracy of better than 0.1 μm. The average volume of beads is 0.1-15vol. % relative to the total volume, i.e. they occupy only small volume.The beads may be colored or black.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the electrodes cover2-30% of the substrate surface, preferably 3-20%, more preferably 4-10%,such as 5-8%.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator a counterion isselected form sulfate, chloride, bromide, and combinations thereof.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator an electricalpotential is between −60-+60V, preferably −20-+20V, more preferably−15-+15V. It is noted that in view of the small distance between firstand second electrode the electrical field (V/μm) is much higher comparedto prior art devices, typically 5-20 times higher. It has been foundthat fluid behavior is better at a higher voltage, e.g. in terms offlow, and switching time. It is preferred to have particles chargestabilized. As such a better performance e.g. in view of distributionover the field electrode, and faster and better controllable switchingtimes are achieved.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator an electricalcurrent is between −100-+100 μA, preferably −30-+30 μA, more preferably−25-+25 μA.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator a substrate materialis selected from glass, and polymer.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator thenanoparticles/microparticles may comprise a coating on a pigment, andpreferably comprising a core.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator substrates (11,12)are aligned, and/or electrodes (13,14) are aligned.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the fluid is anapolar fluid with a dielectric constant less than 15, such as branchedor unbranched C₈-C₆₀ alkanes, branched or unbranched C₈-C₆₀ alkenes,branched or unbranched C₆-C₆₀ alcohols, branched or unbranched C₆-C₆₀alkanols, branched or unbranched C₈-C₆₀ ketones, branched or unbranchedC₈-C₆₀ aldehydes, silicon oils, and combinations thereof. In case ofhigher alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, alkanols, ketones, and aldehydes,branched molecules are preferred. Examples are squalane (C₃₀H₆₂) andsqualene (C₃₀H₆₀).

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator a size of thenanoparticles is from 20-1000 nm, preferably 20-300 nm, more preferablysmaller than 200 nm. The diameter of the particles is defined herein tobe the largest distance that can be formed between two opposite parallellines tangent to its boundary. It has been found that these particlesprovide a good distribution of particles over the present (field)electrode. In view of an electro-magnetic field to be applied thepresent particles are being chargeable or charged. Likewise magneticparticles may be used. It is preferred to provide a stable dispersion;as such the above sizes are preferred. The particle size is consideredto be a measure of an averaged diameter thereof. Light scattering can beused to determine a particle size distribution, such as using a MalvernZetasizer Nano Range. It has further been found that smaller particlesattribute significantly to the present characteristics of the pixels.

In general the reflectance of the present modulator is high, typicallymore than 50% is reflected. As a result for black particles atransmittance of >65% is achieved, and for sophisticated modulatorsvalues of 71% or more are achieved. For colored particles (such as CMY)a transmittance of >80% is easily achievable, whereas levels of >85% oreven >90% have been reached. Especially in view of stacked modulatorssuch is very relevant.

In an example the open (non-electrode) area is more than 70%, such as80% transparent, preferably more than 90%; typically transparency isdetermined at a wavelength of 550 nm. The open area may be made of thesubstrate, such as glass and a suitable polymer, such as poly carbonate(Perspex) and PET. The material may have a thickness of 0.01 mm-2 mm,preferably 0.025 mm-1 mm, such as 0.05-0.5 mm. If a flexible pixeland/or display are required it is preferred to use a thin material. Ifsome strength is required, a thicker material is preferred. It has beenfound that with such transparency energy consumption can even be furtherreduced. Such provides huge advantages, e.g. in terms of usage, reducedneed for loading devices, smaller charge storing devices, etc.Especially when a power grid is not available such will be appreciated.

In an example the modulator may be provided in a flexible polymer, andthe remainder of the device may be provided in glass. The glass may berigid glass or flexible glass. If required a protection layer isprovided. If more than one color is provided, more than one layer offlexible polymer may be provided. The polymer may be poly ethylenenaphthalate (PEN), poly ethylene terephthalate (PET) (optionally havinga SiN layer), polyethylene (PE), etc. In a further example the devicemay be provided in at least one flexible polymer. As such the modulatormay be attached to any surface, such as by using an adhesive.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the particles areadapted to absorb light with a wavelength of 10 nm-1 mm, such as 400-800nm, 700 nm-1 μm, and 10-400 nm, and/or are adapted to absorb a part ofthe light with a wavelength-range falling within 10 nm-1 mm (filter),and combinations thereof.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator a distance betweenthe first and second substrate is smaller than 500 μm, preferablysmaller than 200 μm, more preferably less than 100 μm, even morepreferably less than 50 μm, such as less than 30 μm.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator electrodes are forstoring the particles.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator a charge on theparticles is 0.1e to 10e per particle (5*10⁻⁷−0.1 C/m²).

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the coating of theparticles is made from a material selected from conducting andsemi-conducting materials.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the fluid is presentin an amount of 1-1000/gm², preferably 2-75/gm², more preferably20-50/gm², such as 30-40/gm². It is a big advantage that with thepresent layout much less fluid, and likewise particles, can be used.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the particles arepresent in an amount of 0.01-70/gm², preferably 0.02-10/gm², such as0.1-3/gm².

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the particles have acolor selected from cyan, magenta, and yellow, and from black and white,and combinations thereof.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the fluid comprisesone or more of a surfactant, an emulsifier, a polar compound, and acompound capable of forming a hydrogen bond.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the fluid has arelative permittivity ε_(r) of less than 100, preferably less than 10,such as less than 5.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator a dynamic viscosityof less than 0.5 Pa*s, preferably less than 100 mPa*s, such as from0.2-10 mPa*s, e.g. 0.5-5 mPa*s, e.g. 1-2 mPa*s, preferably a dynamicviscosity of less than 1 mPa*s.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the opticalmodulator comprises 10⁻⁸-50 pixels/mm², preferably 10⁻⁶-16 pixels/mm²,more preferably 5*10⁻⁴−1 pixels/mm², even more preferably 1*10⁻³−0.11pixels/mm².

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the controller isadapted to switch individual pixels.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the power provideris a combined AC/DC provider.

In an exemplary embodiment the optical modulator may comprise a drivercircuit that is adapted to provide a time varying electro-magneticfield.

In an exemplary embodiment of the optical modulator the waveform poweris characterized by a frequency of 0.01-100 Hz, a variation in amplitudeof 5-100% of a maximum amplitude, wherein the maximum amplitude is amaximum voltage operation, and in a variation in phase (phase shift) of0-180°.

In a second aspect the present disclosure relates to a productcomprising an optical modulator as described according to any embodimentherein, wherein the product is selected from a window blind, a signagesystem, an outdoor display, an electronic label, a secondary screen, asmart glass, a color panel, and a screen.

In a third aspect the present disclosure relates to a method ofoperating the present optical modulator comprising applying anelectrical field, moving particles from an electrode towards the fluid,applying a reverse electrical field, moving particles spread out towardsthe electrode, using an alternating current with an electrical potentialbetween −220 V and +220 V, and an electrical current between −100 μA and+100 μA, wherein electron consumption between the two phases issubstantially equal, thereby balancing positive and negative currentflows, wherein during a first phase the electrode material is partlydissolved in the fluid, and wherein during a first phase +180 degreesdissolved electrode material is redeposited on the electrode. Such istypically not the case for prior art devices wherein for instance only apotential is controlled and balanced, but no attention is paid tobalancing.

In an exemplary embodiment of the present method the dissolved electrodeis deposited on an oppositely charged electrode, hence the material maybe deposited on another electrode (compared to the one which providedthe material in the first place).

The device and method are further detailed by the accompanying figuresand examples, which are exemplary and explanatory of nature and are notlimiting the scope of the invention. To the person skilled in the art itmay be clear that many variants, being obvious or not, may beconceivable falling within the scope of protection, defined by thepresent claims.

The device and method, although described in detailed explanatorycontext, may be best understood in conjunction with the accompanyingexamples and figures.

FIG. 1A shows a side view of the optical modulator, in order to switchthe device to an ‘on state’ in a first instance, P1, a potential +V1 isapplied to each micro wire electrode on the top substrate, while anegative voltage is applied to each micro wire electrode of the bottomplate. In the first instance, P1, the difference in potential causesparticles to flow to the vicinity of the microwire electrodes of the topsubstrate, where the particles will substantially align with the topmicrowire electrodes. Between the substrates, copper ions from a topcopper microwire electrode are being dissolved in the ionic liquid ofthe display or smart window, and the dissolved copper ions progressivelyflow to the corresponding aligned copper microwire electrode of thebottom substrate, where the copper ions progressively deposit on thealigned copper microwire electrode of the bottom substrate.

In a second instance, P2, of the ‘on state’, the voltages of the topelectrode copper microwires and bottom electrode copper microwires arereversed in contrast to the instance of P1. In the instance P2, thevoltage of each microwire electrode on of the top substrate are nowsupplied with a negative potential −V1 while the voltages of the alignedcopper microwires of the bottom substrate are supplied with a positivepotential. The difference in potential will cause the particles of thewindow or display to flow to the vicinity of the copper microwireelectrodes of the bottom substrate, where the particles will agglomerateand substantially align with the bottom microwire electrodes. Betweenthe substrates, copper ions from the bottom copper microwire electrodeare dissolved in the ionic liquid of the display or smart window, andthe dissolved copper ions progressively flow to the correspondingaligned copper microwire electrode of the top substrate, where thecopper ions progressively deposit on the aligned copper microwireelectrode of the top substrate. A balancing electrolysis current isobtained by continuously switching the polarity of the top and bottomelectrode copper microwires. Between the two instances the corrosioncurrent between the two substrates is balanced or substantially (>95%)balanced, i.e., as corrosion rate of an electrode of the top plateoccurs there is a balancing deposition of copper on the bottom electrodebetween each instance of time, P1 and vice versa in instance P2.Therefore, the particles are transitioning or migrating continuouslybetween top and bottom electrode, and the display or smart window isalways in the on state while the dynamic electrolysis current betweenthe top and bottom electrode is constant thus there is no or anegligible net loss of copper electrode microwire material on the topand bottom substrates.

The electrodes may be in the form of micro wires made of copper embeddedin a polymer-based substrate. During operation of the device anelectrochemical current is produced through the display between the twosubstrates, with dissolution of copper ions at one end and the migrationof copper ions to the other end. In order to drive the display a newelectrode configuration between the two substrates is required forattaining a balance in copper electrode dissolution and copper electrodedeposition between the two substrates i.e., a balance of the currentflowing through the display is required. The challenge lies in how toswitch the display while maintaining balance of the electrochemicalcurrent. This can be achieved by a new design of the electrodeconfiguration of the display.

To attain the ‘off state’ the top and bottom substrates are arranged asabove for the ‘on state’. However, on the top substrate, at an instance,P3 (FIG. 1B), the potential applied to the first copper microwire is +V2and the next immediate neighboring microwire has an opposite potential−V2 etc., as shown in FIG. 1B. This creates an alternating voltage onthe same substrate. Similarly, each copper microwire electrode of thebottom substrate has the same potential as its directly oppositecounterpart microwire electrode of the top substrate as shown in FIG.1B. Particles migrate diagonally and laterally between the top andbottom substrate and diffusion of particles into the visible aperture ofthe display contributes to the closed, opaque state of the display.Concurrently, copper ions go into solution at the top copper microwireelectrodes having a positive potential on the same substrate and theions progressively flow to the bottom copper microwire electrodes. Themigrating copper ions re-deposit on the microwire having the negativepotential.

At an instant T4 (FIG. 1C), the voltages are alternated in contrast toFIG. 1B. The potential applied to the first copper microwire of the topsubstrate is −V2 and the next immediate neighboring microwire has anopposite potential +V2 etc., as shown in FIG. 1C. This creates analternating voltage on the same substrate. Similarly, each coppermicrowire electrode of the bottom substrate has the same potential asits directly opposite counterpart microwire electrode of the topsubstrate as shown in FIG. 2B. Concurrently, copper ions go intosolution at the bottom copper microwire electrodes having a positivepotential on the same substrate and the ions progressively flow towardthe top copper microwire electrodes. The migrating copper ionsre-deposit on the microwire having the positive potential. The AC drivecycle may be implemented by using an interdigitated line configurationcombining the top and bottom electrode configuration shown in plan viewin FIG. 2A-2E.

By using this AC drive cycle between top and bottom substrates, diagonaland lateral electric fields are generated between the two substratesthereby causing haphazard diffusion of the particles thereby creatingthe closed state of the display. Electro corrosion process occursdynamically in the off state as well with the AC driving of the displayor smart window. In order to drive the display or smart window, a newelectrode configuration between the two substrates is required forattaining a balance in copper electrode dissolution in the displayliquid and copper electrode deposition on the two substrates i.e., abalance of the current flowing through the display is required. Thechallenge lies in how to switch the display while maintaining balance ofthe electrochemical current through the display or smart window. Thiscan be achieved by a new design of the electrode configuration of thedisplay.

This is achieved by the configuration shown in FIG. 1A. A conductingmetallic electrode pattern, such as a microwire mesh, arranged on thetop substrate is completely or substantially aligned with a conductingmetallic electrode pattern on the bottom substrate. The conductingmetallic electrode pattern may be deposited on a glass substrate or amicrowire mesh may be embedded in a plastics substrate.

In view of FIG. 2E the following is an example of creating such anelectrode pattern. Therein each electrode design is composed of 2parallel lines being repeated. The 2 specific parallel lines areinitiated by the same sinusoidal curve. In one embodiment, the so calledRhine1 design is made of sinusoidal curve of amplitude 340 μm andwavelength of 340 μm. In another embodiment, the so called Rhine2project is made of sinusoidal curve of amplitude 340 μm and a wavelengthof 640 μm. The line gap is preferably set to 70 μm. Then for each curve,peaks of the sinusoidal curve are detected (with a 99.9% tolerance).From those coordinates (2× coordinates corresponding to the peaks inangle 0 and angle 180, lowest peak and highest peak), 4 criteria areused: S1, S2, S3 and S4.

On the first of the 2 curves:

-   -   S1 corresponds to a number of μm to retrieve to the x coordinate        of the high peak,    -   S2 corresponds to a number of μm to add to the x coordinate of        the high peak,    -   S3 corresponds to a number of μm to retrieve to the x coordinate        of the low peak,    -   S4 corresponds to a number of μm to add to the x coordinate of        the low peak,

The portion of the sinusoidal curve between S1-S2 and S3-S4 on the firstcurve only is replaced by an oval shape pointing downward of amplitudeof the sinusoidal curve. For the second parallel sinusoidal curve, asimilar approach is used. The values of S1, S2, S3 and S4 are re-usedbut here attributed differently and as followed:

-   -   S2 corresponds to a number of μm to retrieve to the x coordinate        of the high peak,    -   S3 corresponds to a number of μm to add to the x coordinate of        the high peak,    -   S1 corresponds to a number of μm to retrieve to the x coordinate        of the low peak,    -   S4 corresponds to a number of μm to add to the x coordinate of        the low peak. This approach was used to limit the number of        possibilities and gave us the possibilities to compute more        randomized system.

The oval shape is pointing downwards in the figure. It is also possibleto point the oval shape always within the sinusoidal curve. A 1000×1000μm pattern line image is created following the rules mentioned above.Lines are plotted in black on a white background to simulate an openstate. An FFT function (Fast Fourier Transform) is applied to eachimages. Thereafter a filter is applied on the FFT image. Every pixelvalue below 180 is set to 0, Black. Every value above on the 8bit scaleis then replaced by the proportion of the value within a new 0-256 scalewhere consider the previous value as part of 180-256 scale. This revealsthe diffraction pattern. The center of the square image FFT representsthe “initial image” and therefore this pixel is set to 0 too. Then theFFT image histogram is analyzed and the main criteria looked at is thehighest grey value in that image. The higher the grey value, thestronger the diffraction effect will be. So then all designed allclassified according to this maximum grey value.

Schematics representative of the electrical signal that can be added toone set of electrodes are shown in FIGS. 3A-3C. The other electrode seton the interdigitated system will have the opposite waveform. Thewaveform is composed of 3 different phases:

-   -   P1: the opening phase    -   P2: maintaining the opening state phase    -   P3: closing phase

Depending on the ink properties, P1 phase can be applied in variousways: increase of potential in DC mode (for fast ink) or a highfrequency AC signal (>10 Hz) (for the slow ink).

P2 phase is composed of a high frequency signal (>10 Hz) that also couldbe interrupted for a definitive amount of time corresponding with theink stability. During that phase the potential could be reducedcomparable with the P1 phase. Indeed it may require a high voltage tobring the particles to the electrode (a need to create sufficientelectric field force for the particles that are further away of theelectrode). When the particles are close to the electrode, then a lowerpotential can be applied to obtain locally the same attraction force onthe particles.

P3 phase is the closing phase. With a slow ink, a low frequency ACsignal (less than 1 Hz) can be applied. The potential will also bereduced compared to P1 as it is not needed to travel the particles tillthe opposite electrodes. For a fast ink and with P1 DC, the closing willbe the exact opposite of P1 phase in order to maintain the balance incurrent.

It should be appreciated that for commercial application it may bepreferable to use one or more variations of the present system, whichwould similar be to the ones disclosed in the present application andare within the spirit of the invention.

REFERENCE NUMBERS

-   -   10 optical modulator    -   11 first substrate    -   12 second substrate    -   13 first electrode    -   14 second electrode    -   15 fluid    -   21 first protrusion    -   22 second protrusion    -   30 nanoparticle/microparticle    -   A amplitude of wave form    -   d distance between fingers    -   w width of waveform

The invention claimed is:
 1. An optical electrophoretic modulator forswitching between a transparent state and a non-transparent state andvice versa, the optical electrophoretic modulator comprising: first andsecond substrates, wherein the first and second substrates are opticallytransparent, at least two electrodes on each of the first and secondsubstrates, the at least two electrodes being provided at an internalside of the respective first or second substrate, a fluid provided inbetween the first and second substrates, the fluid comprisingnanoparticles and/or microparticles, wherein the particles areelectrically charged or chargeable, and wherein the particles areadapted to absorb light, a connection for applying an electro-magneticfield to the at least two electrodes, wherein the appliedelectro-magnetic field to the electrodes provides movement of thenanoparticles and/or microparticles from a first electrode to a secondelectrode of the at least two electrodes and vice versa, wherein the atleast two electrodes comprise an electrically conducting material with aresistivity of less than 100 nΩm at 273 K, wherein, when switching to anon-transparent state, the at least two electrodes are adapted toprovide an electrical force therebetween parallel to the first andsecond substrates, and wherein, when switching to a transparent state,the at least two electrodes are adapted to provide an electrical forcetherebetween in an orientation with respect to the first and secondsubstrates, wherein the orientation is selected from parallel to thefirst and second substrates, perpendicular to the first and secondsubstrates, diagonal with respect to the first and second substrates,and combinations thereof, a power provider in electrical connection withthe at least two electrodes, wherein the power provider is adapted toprovide a waveform AC power, wherein at least one of amplitude,frequency and phase is adaptable, wherein two of the at least twoelectrodes form an interdigitated pattern on both of the first andsecond substrates, wherein the power provider is operated at an ACfrequency of 10-100 Hz for switching to a transparent state, and/or thepower provider is operated at an AC frequency of less than 1 Hz forswitching to a non-transparent state, or wherein, within one switchingcycle, the power provider is operated at an AC frequency of 10-100 Hzfor switching to a transparent state, in combination with the powerprovider initially being operated at a positive or negative voltage whenswitching to a transparent state and in combination with the powerprovider being finally operated at a negative or positive voltage whenswitching to a non-transparent state.
 2. The optical electrophoreticmodulator according to claim 1, wherein the at least two electrodescover 1-30% of a substrate surface.
 3. The optical electrophoreticmodulator according to claim 1, wherein a waveform shape symmetry isbroken.
 4. The optical electrophoretic modulator according to claim 1,wherein at a maximum of the waveform shape a downward curved firstprotrusion is provided, and wherein at a minimum of the waveform shape adownward or upward curved second protrusion is provided.
 5. The opticalelectrophoretic modulator according to claim 4, wherein the firstprotrusion has a larger width than the second protrusion.
 6. The opticalelectrophoretic modulator according to claim 4, wherein a width W of thewaveform is 50-750 μm, and/or wherein an amplitude A of the waveform is10-500 μm, and/or wherein a distance d between the fingers is between10-500 μm, and/or wherein a width of the first protrusion is 10-50 μm,and/or wherein a width of the second protrusion is 10-50 μm, and/orwherein a width of the first protrusion is 2-4 times the width of thesecond protrusion, and/or wherein a height h of the first protrusion is5-20 μm, and/or wherein a height h of the second protrusion is 5-20 μm,and/or wherein a form of the protrusion is part of a circle or oval. 7.The optical electrophoretic modulator according to claim 1, wherein thepower provider is adapted to provide pulses and to refrain fromproviding pulses during intervals therein between.
 8. The opticalelectrophoretic modulator according to claim 1, further comprising acontroller, wherein the controller is adapted to maintain an alternatingelectrical current with a size of a positive current being 0.9-1.1 timesa size of a negative current, and adapted to vary an electricalpotential in accordance with the electrical current.
 9. The opticalelectrophoretic modulator according to claim 1, further comprising atleast two alignment markers on each first and second substrates foraligning the first and second substrates, such that the at least twoelectrodes of the first substrate are fully aligned with the at leasttwo electrodes of the second substrate.
 10. The optical electrophoreticmodulator according to claim 1, further comprising a temperature sensorand a controller, wherein the temperature sensor is in contact with thecontroller, wherein the controller is in contact with the powerprovider, and wherein the controller as adapted to compensate output ofthe power provider in view of the temperature measured by thetemperature sensor.
 11. The optical electrophoretic modulator accordingto claim 1, wherein the fluid comprises an apolar fluid with adielectric constant less than 15 selected from the group consisting of:branched or unbranched C₈-C₆₀ alkanes, branched or unbranched C₈-C₆₀alkenes, branched or unbranched C₆-C₆₀ alcohols, branched or unbranchedC₆-C₆₀ alkanols, branched or unbranched C₈-C₆₀ ketones, branched orunbranched C₈-C₆₀ aldehydes, silicon oils, and combinations thereof. 12.The optical electrophoretic modulator according to claim 1, wherein asize of the nanoparticles is from 20-1000 nm.
 13. The opticalelectrophoretic modulator according to claim 1, wherein the particlesare adapted to absorb light with a wavelength of 10 nm-1 micron.
 14. Theoptical electrophoretic modulator according to claim 1, wherein adistance between the first and second substrates is smaller than 500 μm.15. The optical electrophoretic modulator according to claim 1, whereina dynamic viscosity of the fluid is 500 mPa·s or less.
 16. The opticalelectrophoretic modulator according to claim 1, wherein the fluid has arelative permittivity ε_(r) of less than
 100. 17. The opticalelectrophoretic modulator according to claim 1, wherein the waveform ACpower is characterized by a frequency of 0.01-100 Hz, a variation inamplitude of 5-100% of a maximum amplitude, wherein the maximumamplitude is a maximum voltage operation, and a variation in phase(phase shift) of 0-180°.
 18. A switching method for switching an opticalelectrophoretic modulator between a transparent state and anon-transparent state and vice versa, the optical electrophoreticmodulator comprising: first and second substrates, wherein the first andsecond substrates are optically transparent, at least two electrodes oneach of the first and second substrates, the at least two electrodesbeing provided at an internal side of the respective first or secondsubstrate, a fluid provided in between the first and second substrates,the fluid comprising nanoparticles and/or microparticles, wherein theparticles are electrically charged or chargeable, and wherein theparticles are adapted to absorb light, a connection for applying anelectro-magnetic field to the at least two electrodes, wherein theapplied electro-magnetic field to the electrodes provides movement ofthe nanoparticles and/or microparticles from a first electrode to asecond electrode of the at least two electrodes and vice versa, whereinthe at least two electrodes comprise an electrically conducting materialwith a resistivity of less than 100 nΩm at 273 K, and a power providerin electrical connection with the at least two electrodes, wherein thepower provider is adapted to provide a waveform AC power, wherein atleast one of amplitude, frequency, and phase is adaptable, and whereintwo of the at least two electrodes form an interdigitated pattern onboth of the first and second substrates, the method comprising:providing an electrical force between the at least two electrodesparallel to the first and second substrates, switching to anon-transparent state, and providing an electrical force between the atleast two electrodes in an orientation with respect to the first andsecond substrates, switching to a transparent state, wherein theorientation is selected from parallel to the first and secondsubstrates, perpendicular to the first and second substrates, diagonalwith respect to the first and second substrates, and combinationsthereof, wherein the power provider is operated at an AC frequency of10-100 Hz for switching to a transparent state, and/or the powerprovider is operated at an AC frequency of less than 1 Hz for switchingto a non-transparent state, or wherein, within one switching cycle, thepower provider is operated at an AC frequency of 10-100 Hz for switchingto a transparent state, in combination with the power provider initiallybeing operated at a positive or negative voltage when switching to atransparent state and in combination with the power provider beingfinally operated at a negative or positive voltage when switching to anon-transparent state.
 19. An optical electrophoretic modulator forswitching between a transparent state and a non-transparent state andvice versa, the optical electrophoretic modulator comprising: first andsecond substrates, wherein the first and second substrates are opticallytransparent, at least two electrodes on each of the first and secondsubstrates, the at least two electrodes being provided at an internalside of the respective first or second substrate, a fluid provided inbetween the first and second substrates, the fluid comprisingnanoparticles and/or microparticles, wherein the particles areelectrically charged or chargeable, and wherein the particles areadapted to absorb light, a connection for applying an electro-magneticfield to the at least two electrodes, wherein the appliedelectro-magnetic field to the electrodes provides movement of thenanoparticles and/or microparticles from a first electrode to a secondelectrode of the at least two electrodes and vice versa, wherein the atleast two electrodes comprise an electrically conducting material with aresistivity of less than 100 nΩm at 273 K, wherein, when switching to anon-transparent state, the at least two electrodes are adapted toprovide an electrical force therebetween parallel to the first andsecond substrates, and wherein, when switching to a transparent state,the at least two electrodes are adapted to provide an electrical forcetherebetween in an orientation with respect to the first and secondsubstrates, wherein the orientation is selected from parallel to thefirst and second substrates, perpendicular to the first and secondsubstrates, diagonal with respect to the first and second substrates,and combinations thereof, a power provider in electrical connection withthe at least two electrodes, wherein the power provider is adapted toprovide a waveform AC power, wherein at least one of amplitude,frequency and phase is adaptable, and wherein two of the at least twoelectrodes form an interdigitated pattern on both of the first andsecond substrates, and wherein the waveform AC power is characterized bya frequency of 0.01-100 Hz, a variation in amplitude of 5-100% of amaximum amplitude, wherein the maximum amplitude is a maximum voltageoperation, and a variation in phase (phase shift) of 0-180°.
 20. Aswitching method for switching an optical electrophoretic modulatorbetween a transparent state and a non-transparent state and vice versa,the optical electrophoretic modulator comprising: first and secondsubstrates, wherein the first and second substrates are opticallytransparent, at least two electrodes on each of the first and secondsubstrates, the at least two electrodes being provided at an internalside of the respective first or second substrate, a fluid provided inbetween the first and second substrates, the fluid comprisingnanoparticles and/or microparticles, wherein the particles areelectrically charged or chargeable, and wherein the particles areadapted to absorb light, a connection for applying an electro-magneticfield to the at least two electrodes, wherein the appliedelectro-magnetic field to the electrodes provides movement of thenanoparticles and/or microparticles from a first electrode to a secondelectrode of the at least two electrodes and vice versa, wherein the atleast two electrodes comprise an electrically conducting material with aresistivity of less than 100 nΩm at 273 K, and a power provider inelectrical connection with the at least two electrodes, wherein thepower provider is adapted to provide a waveform AC power, wherein atleast one of amplitude, frequency, and phase is adaptable, and whereintwo of the at least two electrodes form an interdigitated pattern onboth of the first and second substrates, the method comprising:providing an electrical force between the at least two electrodesparallel to the first and second substrates, switching to anon-transparent state, and providing an electrical force between the atleast two electrodes in an orientation with respect to the first andsecond substrates, switching to a transparent state, wherein theorientation is selected from parallel to the first and secondsubstrates, perpendicular to the first and second substrates, diagonalwith respect to the first and second substrates, and combinationsthereof, wherein the waveform AC power is characterized by a frequencyof 0.01-100 Hz, a variation in amplitude of 5-100% of a maximumamplitude, wherein the maximum amplitude is a maximum voltage operation,and a variation in phase (phase shift) of 0-180°.
 21. An opticalelectrophoretic modulator for switching between a transparent state anda non-transparent state and vice versa, the optical electrophoreticmodulator comprising: first and second substrates, wherein the first andsecond substrates are optically transparent, at least two electrodes oneach of the first and second substrates, the at least two electrodesbeing provided at an internal side of the respective first or secondsubstrate, a fluid provided in between the first and second substrates,the fluid comprising nanoparticles and/or microparticles, wherein theparticles are electrically charged or chargeable, and wherein theparticles are adapted to absorb light, a connection for applying anelectro-magnetic field to the at least two electrodes, wherein theapplied electro-magnetic field to the electrodes provides movement ofthe nanoparticles and/or microparticles from a first electrode to asecond electrode of the at least two electrodes and vice versa, whereinthe at least two electrodes comprise an electrically conducting materialwith a resistivity of less than 100 nΩm at 273 K, wherein, whenswitching to a non-transparent state, the at least two electrodes areadapted to provide an electrical force therebetween parallel to thefirst and second substrates, and wherein, when switching to atransparent state, the at least two electrodes are adapted to provide anelectrical force therebetween in an orientation with respect to thefirst and second substrates, wherein the orientation is selected fromparallel to the first and second substrates, perpendicular to the firstand second substrates, diagonal with respect to the first and secondsubstrates, and combinations thereof, a power provider in electricalconnection with the at least two electrodes, wherein the power provideris adapted to provide a waveform AC power, wherein at least one ofamplitude, frequency and phase is adaptable, and wherein two of the atleast two electrodes form an interdigitated pattern on both of the firstand second substrates, wherein the optical electrophoretic modulatorfurther comprises a controller adapted to maintain an alternatingelectrical current with a size of a positive current being 0.9-1.1 timesa size of a negative current and adapted to vary an electrical potentialin accordance with the electrical current.
 22. A switching method forswitching an optical electrophoretic modulator between a transparentstate and a non-transparent state and vice versa, the opticalelectrophoretic modulator comprising: first and second substrates,wherein the first and second substrates are optically transparent, atleast two electrodes on each of the first and second substrates, the atleast two electrodes being provided at an internal side of therespective first or second substrate, a fluid provided in between thefirst and second substrates, the fluid comprising nanoparticles and/ormicroparticles, wherein the particles are electrically charged orchargeable, and wherein the particles are adapted to absorb light, aconnection for applying an electro-magnetic field to the at least twoelectrodes, wherein the applied electro-magnetic field to the electrodesprovides movement of the nanoparticles and/or microparticles from afirst electrode to a second electrode of the at least two electrodes andvice versa, wherein the at least two electrodes comprise an electricallyconducting material with a resistivity of less than 100 nΩm at 273 K,and a power provider in electrical connection with the at least twoelectrodes, wherein the power provider is adapted to provide a waveformAC power, wherein at least one of amplitude, frequency, and phase isadaptable, and wherein two of the at least two electrodes form aninterdigitated pattern on both of the first and second substrates, themethod comprising: providing an electrical force between the at leasttwo electrodes parallel to the first and second substrates, switching toa non-transparent state, and providing an electrical force between theat least two electrodes in an orientation with respect to the first andsecond substrates, switching to a transparent state, wherein theorientation is selected from parallel to the first and secondsubstrates, perpendicular to the first and second substrates, diagonalwith respect to the first and second substrates, and combinationsthereof, wherein the optical electrophoretic modulator further comprisesa controller, and wherein the method comprises maintaining by thecontroller an alternating electrical current with a size of a positivecurrent being 0.9-1.1 times a size of a negative current, and varying anelectrical potential in accordance with the electrical current.